Advertisement
Review Article| Volume 41, ISSUE 1, P141-159, March 2023

Postoperative Respiratory Failure and Advanced Ventilator Settings

      Keywords

      To read this article in full you will need to make a payment

      Purchase one-time access:

      Academic & Personal: 24 hour online accessCorporate R&D Professionals: 24 hour online access
      One-time access price info
      • For academic or personal research use, select 'Academic and Personal'
      • For corporate R&D use, select 'Corporate R&D Professionals'

      Subscribers receive full online access to your subscription and archive of back issues up to and including 2002.

      Content published before 2002 is available via pay-per-view purchase only.

      Subscribe:

      Subscribe to Anesthesiology Clinics
      Already a print subscriber? Claim online access
      Already an online subscriber? Sign in
      Institutional Access: Sign in to ScienceDirect

      References

        • Miskovic A.
        • Lumb A.B.
        Postoperative pulmonary complications.
        Br J Anaesth. 2017; 118: 317-334
        • Sabate S.
        • Mazo V.
        • Canet J.
        Predicting postoperative pulmonary complications: implications for outcomes and costs.
        Curr Opin Anesthesiol. 2014; 27: 201-209
        • Shander A.
        • Fleisher L.A.
        • Barie P.S.
        • et al.
        Clinical and economic burden of postoperative pulmonary complications: patient safety summit on definition, risk-reducing interventions, and preventive strategies.
        Crit Care Med. 2011; 39: 2163-2172
        • Thompson D.A.
        • Makary M.A.
        • Dorman T.
        • et al.
        Clinical and economic outcomes of hospital acquired pneumonia in intra-abdominal surgery patients.
        Ann Surg. 2006; 243: 547-552
        • Lawrence V.A.
        • Hilsenbeck S.G.
        • Noveck H.
        • et al.
        Medical complications and outcomes after hip fracture repair.
        Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162: 2053-2057
        • Serpa N.A.
        • Hemmes S.N.
        • Barbas C.S.
        • et al.
        Incidence of mortality and morbidity related to postoperative lung injury in patients who have undergone abdominal or thoracic surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
        Lancet Respir Med. 2014; 2: 1007-1015
        • Canet J.
        • Sabaté S.
        • Mazo V.
        • et al.
        Development and validation of a score to predict postoperative respiratory failure in a multicentre European cohort. A prospective, observational study.
        Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2015; 32: 458-470
        • Attaallah A.F.
        • Vallejo M.C.
        • Elzamzamy O.M.
        • et al.
        Perioperative risk factors for postoperative respiratory failure.
        J Perioper Pract. 2019; 29: 49-53
        • Kim M.
        • Brady J.E.
        • Li G.
        Interaction effects of acute kidney injury, acute respiratory failure, and sepsis on 30-day postoperative mortality in patients undergoing high-risk intraabdominal general surgical procedures.
        Anesth Analg. 2015; 121: 1536-1546
        • Gupta H.
        • Gupta P.
        • Morrow L.
        • et al.
        Development and validation of a risk calculator predicting postoperative respiratory failure.
        Chest. 2011; 140: 1207-1215
        • Canet J.
        • Gallart L.
        • Gomar C.
        • et al.
        Prediction of postoperative pulmonary complications in a population-based surgical cohort.
        Anesthesiology. 2010; 113: 1338-1350
        • Arozullah A.M.
        • Daley J.
        • Henderson W.G.
        • et al.
        Multifactorial risk index for predicting postoperative respiratory failure in men after major noncardiac surgery. The National Veterans Administration Surgical Quality Improvement Program.
        Ann Surg. 2000; 232: 242-253
        • Blum J.M.
        • Stentz M.J.
        • Dechert R.
        • et al.
        Preoperative and intraoperative predictors of postoperative acute respiratory distress syndrome in a general surgical population.
        Anesthesiology. 2013; 118: 19-29
        • Hua M.
        • Brady J.E.
        • Li G.
        A scoring system to predict unplanned intubation in patients having undergone major surgical procedures.
        Anesth Analg. 2012; 115: 88-94
        • Tusman G.
        • Bohm S.H.
        • Warner D.O.
        • et al.
        Atelectasis and perioperative pulmonary complications in high-risk patients.
        Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2012; 25: 1-10
        • Melo M.F.V.
        • Eikermann M.
        Protect the lungs during abdominal surgery it may change the postoperative outcome.
        Anesthesiology. 2013; 118: 1254-1257
        • Sasaki N.
        • Meyer M.J.
        • Eikermann M.
        Postoperative respiratory muscle dysfunction: pathophysiology and preventive strategies.
        Anesthesiology. 2013; 118: 961-978
        • Nishino T.
        • Shirahata M.
        • Yonezawa T.
        • et al.
        Comparison of changes in the hypoglossal and the phrenic nerve activity in response to increasing depth of anesthesia in cats.
        Anesthesiology. 1984; 60: 19-24
        • Eikermann M.
        • Vogt F.M.
        • Herbstreit F.
        • et al.
        The predisposition to inspiratory upper airway collapse during partial neuromuscular blockade.
        Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007; 175: 9-15
        • Ranieri V.M.
        • Rubenfeld G.D.
        • Thompson B.T.
        • et al.
        Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin Definition.
        JAMA. 2012; 307: 2526-2533
        • Litell J.M.
        • Gong M.N.
        • Talmor D.
        • et al.
        Acute lung injury: prevention may be the best medicine.
        Respir Care. 2011; 56: 1546-1554
        • Villar J.
        • Perez-Mendez L.
        • Blanco J.
        • et al.
        A universal definition of ARDS: the PaO2/FiO2 ratio under a standard ventilatory setting: a prospective, multicenter validation study.
        Intensive Care Med. 2013; 39: 583-592
        • Gajic O.
        • Dabbagh O.
        • Park P.K.
        • et al.
        Early identification of patients at risk of acute lung injury: evaluation of lung injury prediction score in a multicenter cohort study.
        Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011; 183: 462-470
        • Biehl M.
        • Kashiouris M.G.
        • Gajic O.
        Ventilator-induced lung injury: minimizing its impact in patients with or at risk for ARDS.
        Respir Care. 2013; 58: 927-937
        • van Kaam A.H.
        • Lachmann R.A.
        • Herting E.
        • et al.
        Reducing atelectasis attenuates bacterial growth and translocation in experimental pneumonia.
        Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004; 169: 1046-1053
        • Brueckmann B.
        • Villa-Uribe J.
        • Eikermann M.
        • et al.
        Development and validation of a score for prediction of postoperative respiratory complications.
        Anesthesiology. 2013; 118: 1276-1285
        • Musallam K.M.
        • Rosendaal F.R.
        • Zaatari G.
        • et al.
        Smoking and the risk of mortality and vascular and respiratory events in patients undergoing major surgery.
        JAMA Surg. 2013; 148: 755-762
        • Mason D.P.
        • Subramanian S.
        • Nowicki E.R.
        • et al.
        Impact of smoking cessation before resection of lung cancer: a Society of Thoracic Surgeons General Thoracic Surgery Database study.
        Ann Thorac Surg. 2009; 88 ([Discussion: 70–71]): 362-370
        • Hemmes S.N.
        • Serpa Neto A.
        • Schultz M.J.
        Intraoperative ventilatory strategies to prevent postoperative pulmonary complications: a meta-analysis.
        Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2013; 26: 126-133
        • Hedenstierna G.
        Oxygen and anesthesia: what lung do we deliver to the postoperative ward?.
        Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2012; 56: 675-685
        • Hovaguimian F.
        • Lysakowski C.
        • Elia N.
        • et al.
        Effect of intraoperative high inspired oxygen fraction on surgical site infection, postoperative nausea and vomiting, and pulmonary function: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.
        Anesthesiology. 2013; 119: 303-316
        • COVIDSurg Collaborative
        Mortality and pulmonary complications in patients undergoing surgery with perioperative SARS-CoV-2 infection: an international cohort study.
        Lancet. 2020; 396 (published correction appears in Lancet. 2020 Jun 9): 27-38
        • Kayani B.
        • Onochie E.
        • Patil V.
        • et al.
        The effects of COVID-19 on perioperative morbidity and mortality in patients with hip fractures.
        Bone Joint J. 2020; 102-B: 1136-1145
        • Knisely A.
        • Zhou Z.N.
        • Wu J.
        • et al.
        Perioperative Morbidity and Mortality of Patients With COVID-19 Who Undergo Urgent and Emergent Surgical Procedures.
        Ann Surg. 2021; 273: 34-40
        • Lei S.
        • Jiang F.
        • Su W.
        • et al.
        Clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients undergoing surgeries during the incubation period of COVID-19 infection.
        EClinicalMedicine. 2020; 21: 100331
        • Haffner M.R.
        • Le H.V.
        • Saiz A.M.
        • et al.
        Postoperative In-Hospital Morbidity and Mortality of Patients With COVID-19 Infection Compared With Patients Without COVID-19 Infection.
        JAMA Netw Open. 2021; 4: e215697
      1. ASA and APSF Statement on Perioperative Testing for the COVID-19 Virus. American Society of Anesthesiologists.
        (Available at:) (Accessed May 14, 2022)
      2. ASA and APSF Joint Statement on Elective Surgery and Anesthesia for Patients after COVID-19 Infection. American Society of Anesthesiologists.
        (Available at:) (Accessed May 14, 2022)
        • COVIDSurg Collaborative
        Delaying surgery for patients with a previous SARS-CoV-2 infection.
        Br J Surg. 2020; 107: e601-e602
        • Deng J.Z.
        • Chan J.S.
        • Potter A.L.
        • et al.
        The risk of postoperative complications after major elective surgery in active or resolved COVID-19 in the United States.
        Ann Surg. 2022; 275: 242-246
        • El-Boghdadly K.
        • Cook T.M.
        • Goodacre T.
        • et al.
        SARS-CoV-2 infection, COVID-19 and timing of elective surgery: A multidisciplinary consensus statement on behalf of the Association of Anaesthetists, the Centre for Peri-operative Care, the Federation of Surgical Specialty Associations, the Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Royal College of Surgeons of England.
        Anaesthesia. 2021; 76: 940-946
        • COVID-19 Treatment Guidelines Panel
        Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Treatment Guidelines. National Institutes of Health.
        (Available at:) (Accessed May 31, 2022)
        • Osadnik C.R.
        • Tee V.S.
        • Carson-Chahhoud K.V.
        • et al.
        Non-invasive ventilation for the management of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure due to exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
        Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017; 7: CD004104
        • Berbenetz N.
        • Wang Y.
        • Brown J.
        • et al.
        Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (CPAP or bilevel NPPV) for cardiogenic pulmonary oedema.
        Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019; 4: CD005351
        • Chughtai M.
        • Gwam C.U.
        • Mohamed N.
        • et al.
        The Epidemiology and Risk Factors for Postoperative Pneumonia.
        J Clin Med Res. 2017; 9: 466-475
        • Warner D.O.
        Preventing postoperative pulmonary complications: the role of the anesthesiologist.
        Anesthesiology. 2000; 92: 1467-1472
        • Jaber S.
        • Lescot T.
        • Futier E.
        • et al.
        Effect of noninvasive ventilation on tracheal reintubation among patients with hypoxemic respiratory failure following abdominal surgery: a randomized clinical trial.
        JAMA. 2016; 315: 1345-1353
        • Ireland C.J.
        • Chapman T.M.
        • Mathew S.F.
        • et al.
        Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) during the postoperative period for prevention of postoperative morbidity and mortality following major abdominal surgery.
        Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014; 2014: CD008930
        • PRISM trial group
        Postoperative continuous positive airway pressure to prevent pneumonia, re-intubation, and death after major abdominal surgery (PRISM): a multicentre, open-label, randomised, phase 3 trial.
        Lancet Respir Med. 2021; 9: 1221-1230
        • Parke R.L.
        • Bloch A.
        • McGuinness S.P.
        Effect of Very-High-Flow Nasal Therapy on Airway Pressure and End-Expiratory Lung Impedance in Healthy Volunteers.
        Respir Care. 2015; 60: 1397-1403
        • Hernández G.
        • Vaquero C.
        • Colinas L.
        • et al.
        Effect of Postextubation High-Flow Nasal Cannula vs Noninvasive Ventilation on Reintubation and Postextubation Respiratory Failure in High-Risk Patients: A Randomized Clinical Trial.
        JAMA. 2016; 316: 1565-1574
        • Ferguson N.D.
        • Fan E.
        • Camporota L.
        • et al.
        The Berlin definition of ARDS: an expanded rationale, justification, and supplementary material.
        Intensive Care Med. 2012; 38 ([Epub 2012 Aug 25. Erratum in: Intensive Care Med. 2012 Oct;38(10):1731-1582]): 1573-1582
        • Bellani G.
        • Laffey J.G.
        • Pham T.
        • et al.
        • ESICM Trials Group
        Noninvasive Ventilation of Patients with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome. Insights from the LUNG SAFE Study.
        Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017; 195: 67-77
        • Chen L.
        • Zhao H.
        • Alam A.
        • et al.
        Postoperative remote lung injury and its impact on surgical outcome.
        BMC Anesthesiol. 2019; 19: 30
        • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network
        • Wiedemann H.P.
        • Wheeler A.P.
        • et al.
        Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury.
        N Engl J Med. 2006; 354: 2564-2575
        • Semler M.W.
        • Wheeler A.P.
        • Thompson B.T.
        • et al.
        Impact of initial central venous pressure on outcomes of conservative versus liberal fluid management in acute respiratory distress syndrome.
        Crit Care Med. 2016; 44: 782-789
        • Miller Timothy E.
        • Myles Paul S.
        Perioperative Fluid Therapy for Major Surgery.
        Anesthesiology. 2019; 130: 825-832
        • Annane D.
        • Pastores S.M.
        • Rochwerg B.
        • et al.
        Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI) in critically ill patients (Part I): Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) and European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) 2017.
        Intensive Care Med. 2017; 43: 1751-1763
        • Meduri G.U.
        • Golden E.
        • Freire A.X.
        • et al.
        Methylprednisolone infusion in early severe ARDS: results of a randomized controlled trial.
        Chest. 2007; 131: 954-963
        • Villar J.
        • Ferrando C.
        • Martínez D.
        • et al.
        Dexamethasone treatment for the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre, randomised controlled trial.
        Lancet Respir Med. 2020; 8: 267-276
        • Bellani G.
        • Laffey J.G.
        • Pham T.
        • et al.
        Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries.
        JAMA. 2016; 315: 788-800
        • Buckley M.S.
        • Agarwal S.K.
        • Garcia-Orr R.
        • et al.
        Comparison of fixed-dose inhaled epoprostenol and inhaled nitric oxide for acute respiratory distress syndrome in critically ill adults.
        J Intensive Care Med. 2021; 36: 466-476
        • Gebistorf F.
        • Karam O.
        • Wetterslev J.
        • et al.
        Inhaled nitric oxide for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in children and adults.
        Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016; 2016: CD002787
        • Torbic H.
        • Szumita P.M.
        • Anger K.E.
        • et al.
        Clinical and economic impact of formulary conversion from inhaled Flolan to inhaled Veletri for refractory hypoxemia in critically ill patients.
        Ann Pharmacother. 2016; 50: 106-112
        • Afshari A.
        • Brok J.
        • Møller A.M.
        • et al.
        Inhaled nitric oxide for acute respiratory distress syndrome and acute lung injury in adults and children: a systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis.
        Anesth Analg. 2011; 112: 1411-1421
        • Papazian L.
        • Forel J.M.
        • Gacouin A.
        • et al.
        ACURASYS Study Investigators: Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome.
        N Engl J Med. 2010; 363: 1107-1116
        • Gainnier M.
        • Roch A.
        • Forel J.M.
        • et al.
        Effect of neuromuscular blocking agents on gas exchange in patients presenting with acute respiratory distress syndrome.
        Crit Care Med. 2004; 32: 113-119
        • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute PETAL Clinical Trials Network
        • Moss M.
        • Huang D.T.
        • et al.
        Early Neuromuscular Blockade in the Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
        N Engl J Med. 2019; 380: 1997-2008
        • Ahmad A.M.
        Essentials of Physiotherapy after Thoracic Surgery: What Physiotherapists Need to Know. A Narrative Review.
        Korean J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2018; 51: 293-307
        • Svensson-Raskh A.
        • Schandl A.R.
        • et al.
        Mobilization started within 2 hours after abdominal surgery improves peripheral and arterial oxygenation: a single-center randomized controlled trial.
        Phys Ther. 2021; 101: pzab094
        • Ambrosino N.
        • Gabbrielli L.
        Physiotherapy in the perioperative period.
        Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol. 2010; 24: 283-289
        • Carvalho C.R.
        • Paisani D.M.
        • Lunardi A.C.
        Incentive spirometry in major surgeries: a systematic review.
        Rev Bras Fisioter. 2011; 15: 343-350
        • Gosselink R.
        • Schrever K.
        • Cops P.
        • et al.
        Incentive spirometry does not enhance recovery after thoracic surgery.
        Crit Care Med. 2000; 28: 679-683
        • Tablan O.C.
        • Anderson L.J.
        • Besser R.
        • et al.
        CDC; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Guidelines for preventing health-care--associated pneumonia, 2003: recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee.
        MMWR Recomm Rep. 2004; 53: 1-36
        • Cassidy M.R.
        • Rosenkranz P.
        • McCabe K.
        • et al.
        Reducing Postoperative Pulmonary Complications With a Multidisciplinary Patient Care Program.
        JAMA Surg. 2013; 148: 740-745
        • Wren S.M.
        • Martin M.
        • Yoon J.K.
        • et al.
        Postoperative pneumonia-prevention program for the inpatient surgical ward.
        J Am Coll Surg. 2010 Apr; 210: 491-495
        • Lawrence V.A.
        • Cornell J.E.
        • Smetana G.W.
        • et al.
        Strategies to reduce postoperative pulmonary complications after noncardiothoracic surgery: systematic review for the American College of Physicians.
        Ann Intern Med. 2006; 144: 596-608
        • Thompson S.L.
        • Lisco S.J.
        Postoperative respiratory failure.
        Int Anesthesiol Clin. 2018; 56 (Winter): 147-164
        • Sud S.
        • Friedrich J.O.
        • Taccone P.
        • et al.
        Prone ventilation reduces mortality in patients with acute respiratory failure and severe hypoxemia: systematic review and meta-analysis.
        Intensive Care Med. 2010; 36: 585-599
        • Guérin C.
        • Reignier J.
        • Richard J.C.
        • et al.
        Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome.
        N Engl J Med. 2013; 368: 2159-2168
        • Pelosi P.
        • Brazzi L.
        • Gattinoni L.
        Prone position in acute respiratory distress syndrome.
        Eur Respir J. 2002; 20: 1017-1028
        • Pelosi P.
        • Croci M.
        • Calappi E.
        • et al.
        Prone positioning improves pulmonary function in obese patients during general anesthesia.
        Anesth Analg. 1996; 83: 578-583
        • Nyrén S.
        • Mure M.
        • Jacobsson H.
        • et al.
        Pulmonary perfusion is more uniform in the prone than in the supine position: scintigraphy in healthy humans.
        J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999; 86: 1135-1141
        • Albert R.K.
        • Hubmayr R.D.
        The prone position eliminates compression of the lungs by the heart.
        Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000; 161: 1660-1665
        • Nyrén S.
        • Radell P.
        • Lindahl S.G.
        • et al.
        Lung ventilation and perfusion in prone and supine postures with reference to anesthetized and mechanically ventilated healthy volunteers.
        Anesthesiology. 2010; 112: 682-687
        • Benoit Z.
        • Wicky S.
        • Fischer J.F.
        • et al.
        The effect of increased FIO(2) before tracheal extubation on postoperative atelectasis.
        Anesth Analg. 2002; 95: 1777-1781
        • Dries D.J.
        • Marini J.J.
        Airway pressure release ventilation.
        J Burn Care Res. 2009; 30: 929-936
        • Putensen C.
        • Zech S.
        • Wrigge H.
        • et al.
        Long term effects of spontaneous breathing during ventilatory support in patients with acute lung injury.
        Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001; 164: 43-49
        • Esan A.
        • Hess D.R.
        • Raoof S.
        • et al.
        Severe hypoxemic respiratory failure: part 1: ventilatory strategies.
        Chest. 2010; 137: 1203-1216
        • Porhomayon J.
        • El-Solh A.A.
        • Nader N.D.
        Applications of airway pressure release ventilation.
        Lung. 2010; 188: 87-96
        • Kotani T.
        • Katayama S.
        • Fukuda S.
        • et al.
        Pressure-controlled inverse ratio ventilation as a rescue therapy for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome.
        Springerplus. 2016; 5: 716
        • Vitale D.
        • Patrizio Petrone M.D.
        • Marini C.P.
        High-Frequency Oscillatory Ventilation (HFOV) as primary ventilator strategy in the management of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with Pneumothorax in the Setting of Trauma.
        Am Surg. 2017; 83: E99
        • Jarvis S.
        • Burt M.K.
        • English W.
        High frequency oscillatory ventilation.
        Anaesth Tutorial Week. 2012; 261: 1-11
        • Amato M.B.
        • Barbas C.S.
        • Bonassa J.
        • et al.
        Volume-assured pressure support ventilation (VAPSV). A new approach for reducing muscle workload during acute respiratory failure.
        Chest. 1992; 102: 1225-1234
        • Younes M.
        Proportional assist ventilation: a new approach to ventilatory support: theory.
        Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992; 145: 114-120
        • Vaporidi K.
        NAVA and PAV+ for lung and diaphragm protection.
        Curr Opin Crit Care. 2020; 26: 41-46
        • Sinderby C.
        • Navalesi P.
        • Beck J.
        • et al.
        Neural control of mechanical ventilation in respiratory failure.
        Nat Med. 1999; 5: 1433-1436
        • Sinderby C.
        • Beck J.
        Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA): an update and summary of experiences.
        Neth Crit Care. 2007; 11: 243-252
        • Kacmarek R.M.
        • Villar J.
        • Parrilla D.
        • et al.
        NAVa In Acute respiraTORy failure (NAVIATOR) Network. Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist in acute respiratory failure: a randomized controlled trial.
        Intensive Care Med. 2020; 46: 2327-2337
        • Taniguchi C.
        • Victor E.S.
        • Pieri T.
        • et al.
        Smart Care™ versus respiratory physiotherapy-driven manual weaning for critically ill adult patients: a randomized controlled trial.
        Crit Care. 2015 Jun 11; 19: 246
        • Tonna J.E.
        • Abrams D.
        • Brodie D.
        • et al.
        Management of Adult Patients Supported with Venovenous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (VV ECMO): Guideline from the Extracorporeal Life Support Organization (ELSO).
        ASAIO J. 2021; 67: 601-610
      3. Brogan T.V., Lequier L., Lorusso R., et al., Extracorporeal life support: the ELSO red book, 5th edition, Extracorporeal Life Support Organization; Ann Arbor, MI, 415–423.

        • Peek G.J.
        • Mugford M.
        • Tiruvoipati R.
        • et al.
        Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial.
        Lancet. 2009; 374 ([Epub 2009 Sep 15. Erratum in: Lancet. 2009 Oct 17;374(9698):1330]): 1351-1363